Table 1 Pigments and underdrawing identified in the Islamic manuscripts studied
Number | Objects | Red/pink | Yellow | Blue | White | Green | Brown | Metals | Other | Underdrawingb |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 1971.95.1 1224, iraq Struchnos plants, illustrated folio from the khawass al-ashjar | Vermilion; organic red | Pararealgar, realgar | Indigo on plant side, ultramarine on landscape side | n/a | Orpiment, indigo | Brown-red: ultramarine, organic red Dark brown-red: realgar, pararealgar | n/a | Calligraphy in brown ink, vermilion | Red ink |
2 | 1965.478 1224, iraq Verbascum plants, illustrated folio from the khawass al-ashjar | Vermilion; vermilion and orpiment | Vermilion, orpiment (bird and plant side) Pararealgar (plant side) | Ultramarine | n/a | Orpiment, indigo | Brown-red: hematite, pararealgar (plant side) Light brown–pararealgar, vermilion (plant side) | n/a | Calligraphy in brown ink, vermilion Purple-red: organic reda | Red ink |
3 | 1960.193 1224, iraq Warrior and physician with the plant kestron, illustrated folio from the khawass al-ashjar | Vermilion; red lead, organic red | Pararealgar | Ultramarine;ultramarine with copper green | Lead white | Orpiment, indigo Copper green | n/a | Gold | Calligraphy in brown ink, vermilion Purple: unknown with some vermilion | Red ink |
4 | 2002.50.140 Early 13th century, iraq Fineleaf fumitory, illustrated folio from the khawass al-ashjar | Vermilion | n/a | n/a | n/a | Lighter green–orpiment, indigo Darker green–orpiment, indigo, unknown | Red-brown–vermilion, orpiment | n/a | Calligraphy in brown ink, vermilion Purple: unknown, some vermilion | Red ink (minor) |
5 | 1960.204 1300s, maraga, iran Mule, illustrated folio from the manafi al-hayawan by ibn bakhtishu | Vermilion; red lead | n/a | n/a | n/a | Orpiment, indigo | Unknown with some vermilion | Gold | n/a | n/a |
6 | 1960.205 1300s, maraga, iran Falcon, illustrated folio from the manafi al-hayawan by ibn bakhtishu | Vermilion | Pararealgar | Azurite, some with malachite inclusions | n/a | Orpiment, indigo | Pararealgar Probably with organic red, carbon black Light brown: pararealgar, vermilion, azuritea | Gold | Orange/yellow: pararealgar, vermilion Purple: vermillion, azurite, organic reda Gray: carbon black | n/a |
7 | 1919.130, 1955.167, 1956.212, 1957.193, 1958.288, 1960.190 1330s, tabriz, iran Illustrated folios (6) great ilkhanid shahnama by firdawsi | Vermilion; organic red Pink: red lead, lead white orpiment | n/aa | Ultramarine | Lead white | Orpiment and indigo | Hematite, vermilion | Gold; silver-rich gold Silver | Orange: vermilion, orpiment; red lead, vermilion; red lead, hematite | |
8 | Villa i tatti 1330s, tabriz, iran Prince isfandiyar reproaches his father, gushtasp, illustrated folio from the great iklhanid shahnama by firdawsi | Vermilion; Vermilion, red lead; Red lead; Organic red Pink: vermilion, lead white, red lead, organic reda | n/a | Ultramarine, sometimes mixed with lead white | Lead white | Orpiment and indigo; copper green, lead white | Hematite, vermilion Hematite, vermilion, red lead Hematite, vermilion, orpiment | Gold Silver | Orange: red lead, vermilion, orpiment Purple: organic red, ultramarine, red lead; organic red, ultramarine, indigo; organic red, ultramarine; organic red, ultramarine, lead white gray: lead white, carbon black | Black ink |
9 | 1960.96.1 C. 1330s, baghdad, iraq Mihras offers nushirvan the treasure of rum, illustrated folio from the shahnama by firdawsi | Vermilion Pink: lead white, vermilion | Orpiment | Indigo, ultramarine | Lead white | Rare copper green | Brown: orpiment, vermilion | Gold Silver | Orange: red lead, vermilion | |
10 | 1960.186.1 1341, isfahan, iran Illustrated folio from the mu’nis al-ahrar fi daqa ‘iq al-ash’ar (recto) 1960.186.2 1341, isfahan, iran Illustrated folio from the mu’nis al-ahrar fi daqa ‘iq al-ash’ar (verso) | Vermilion; organic red Pink: vermillion, lead white, sometimes mixed with red lead Pink: vermilion, orpiment, lead white | Orpiment Orpiment | Azurite, sometimes with lead white Ultramarine Azurite; light blue: azurite, lead white | Lead white Lead white | Copper green; orpiment, indigo Orpiment, indigo | Hematite Red-brown: hematite, vermillion | Gold | Orange: orpiment, vermillion Purplea: vermilion, orpiment, indigo | |
11 | 1965.476 1354, cairo, egypt Pump for raising water, illustrated folio from the kitab fi ma ‘rifat al-hiyal al-handasiya by al-jazari | Vermilion Pink: vermilion, lead white | Orpiment (some vermilion) | Ultramarine; ultramarine, azurite; light blue: ultramarine, lead white | n/a | Orpiment, indigo | Vermilion, carbon black | n/a | Orange: vermilion, orpiment | n/a |
12 | 1919.138 1354, cairo, egypt Female cupbearer, illustrated folio from the kitab fi ma ‘rifat al-hiyal al-handasiya by al-jazari | Vermilion Pink: lead white, vermilion | Orpiment (some vermilion) | Indigo | n/a | Orpiment, indigo | n/a | Gold | Orange ink | |
13 | Villa i tatti 1427, herat, afghanistan Anthology for prince baysunghur Manuscript: 4 illuminations, 7 paintings examined | Vermilion, red lead Pink: organic red, lead white, red lead | Orpiment | Ultramarine, sometimes mixed with lead white | Lead white | Orpiment and indigo; copper chloride, lead white | Hematite, vermilion, red lead Hematite, vermilion, red lead, orpiment Hematite, red lead, orpiment | Gold; silver-rich gold Silver | Orange: red lead Red lead, orpiment Red lead, vermilion Purple: organic red, ultramarine, lead white Red lead, indigo, lead white Grey: lead white and carbon black | Red ink |
14 | Villa i tatti 1436, shiraz, iran Timur receives guests, illustrated folio from the zafarnama by sharaf al-din ‘ali yazdi | Vermilion Vermilion, red lead Red lead; organic red Pink: organic red, lead white, red lead | Orpiment | Ultramarine, sometimes mixed with lead white | Lead white | Orpiment and indigo; copper green, lead white | Hematite, vermilion Hematite, vermilion, red lead Hematite, vermilion Red lead, orpiment | Gold | Orange: red lead Purple: organic red, ultramarine, red lead Organic red, ultramarine, indigo, lead white Organic red, indigo Organic red, ultramarine, lead white | Orange or black inka |
15 | 1960.198 1436, shiraz, iran Timur celebrates his conquest of delhi, illustrated folio from the zafarnama by sharaf al-din ‘ali yazdi | Red lead, vermilion; vermilion; organic red | Orpiment | Ultramarine, lead white | Lead white | Orpiment, indigo; copper green | Lead white, red lead, vermilion, orpiment; red lead, indigo; orpiment; red lead, carbon black | Gold Silver | Orange: red lead, vermilion; orpiment, vermilion, lead white | Dry black carbonaceous material Brown-orange ink Same manuscript as i tatti |
16 | 1936.29 C. 1440, iran Iskandar’s mother weeping over his bier, illustrated folio from the shahnama by firdawsi | Vermilion | Orpiment | Ultramarine | Lead white | Green: copper green Other green: orpiment, indigo | Hematite | Gold | Orange: red lead | |
17 | 1960.199 C. 1475–1500 Herat, afghanistan Assault on a castle | Vermilion, red lead Pink: lead white, organic red, vermilion | Orpiment | Ultramarine, lead white | Lead white | Orpiment, indigo Atacamite Atacamite, malachite and ultramarine antlerite, ultramarine | Hematite, vermilion, red lead, sometimes mixed with lead white and/or orpiment | Gold; silver-rich gold Silver | Orange: red lead; red lead, vermilion; red lead, orpiment Purple: vermilion, ultramarine, organic red; lead white, organic red, ultramarine Gray: lead white, carbon black | Dry black carbonaceous material Black ink (very dry brush) |
18 | 57.1965 C. 1477, shiraz, iran Rescue of sa`d vaqqas and dalafruz, illustrated folio from the khavarannama by muhammad ibn husam | Vermilion | Orpiment | Ultramarine | Lead white | Ultramarine, lead white, copper green; orpiment, indigo | Hematite | Gold | Orange: red lead Purple: ultramarine, organic red | |
19 | 1956.23 C. 1477, shiraz, iran Qanbar delivers `ali’s letter to mir sayyaf, illustrated folio from the khavarannama by muhammad ibn husam | Vermilion | Orpiment | Ultramarine | Lead white | Ultramarine, lead white, copper green; orpiment, indigo | Hematite, orpiment, ultramarinea Dark brown, hematite, vermilion | Gold | Orange: orpiment, vermilion Purple: ultramarine, organic red | |
20 | Villa i tatti 1480s, shiraz, iran Kay kavus crowns his grandson kay khusraw, illustrated folio from the shahnama by firdawsi | Vermilion; Vermilion, red lead, organic red; red lead Pink: organic red, lead white, red lead | Orpiment | Ultramarine, sometimes mixed with lead white Ultramarine, indigo | Lead white | Orpiment and indigo; copper green, lead white | Hematite Hematite, vermilion, red lead | Gold | Orange: red lead Purple: organic red, ultramarine Organic red, ultramarine, vermilion Organic red | Black ink |
21 | 1957.148 1493–1494, gilan, iran Afrasiyab consulting his son shideh, illustrated folio from the shahnama by firdawsi | Vermilion | Orpiment | Ultramarine | Lead white | Copper chloride, lead white; orpiment, indigo | n/a | Gold; silver-rich gold Silver | Orange: red lead Purple: lead white, ultramarine, organic red | |
22 | 1965.481 15th century, shiraz, iran Battle of the clans, illustrated folio from a manuscript of sufi poetry | Vermilion Pink: organic reda, lead white | Orpiment | Ultramarine, sometimes mixed with lead white | Lead white | Copper chloride; orpiment, indigo | Hematite; orpiment, lead phase | Gold Silver | Orange: red lead Purple: ultramarine, organic red | |
23 | Villa i tatti 1520–30s, shiraz, iran Illustrated manuscript of the shahnama by firdawsi | Vermilion Pink: organic red, lead white | Orpiment | Illuminations: dark: ultramarine, light: ultramarine, lead white Paintings: ultramarine, azurite, lead white | Lead white | Copper chloride , lead white; orpiment, indigo | Hematite, red lead, sometimes mixed with orpiment | Gold; silver-rich gold Silver | Orange: red lead Purple: organic red, red lead, ultramarine, lead white Grey: lead white, carbon black | Black ink |
24 | 2002.50.13 1520–1540, tabriz, iran Afrasiyab and siyavush embrace, illustrated folio from the shahnama by firdawsi | Vermilion Pink: lead white, vermilion | Orpiment; orpiment, vermilion, lead white | Ultramarine | Lead white | Green: antlerite, azurite; malachite, atacamite; malachite, calcite; malachite, atacamite, calcite; ultramarine, malachite, calcite Orpiment, indigo | Hematite | Gold Silver | Orange: vermilion, hematite, lead white; orpiment, lead white Purple: organic red, lead white, ultramarine | |
25 | 1984.750.1 and .2 C. 1530, tabriz, iran Folios (2) from the divan of hafiz | Red lead, Vermilion | Orpiment | Indigo Ultramarine, sometimes mixed with lead white | Lead white | Copper green, sometimes mixed with ultramarine | n/a | Gold | Orange: red lead | Dry-hematite, carbon black, red lead |
26 | 1958.76 C. 1540s., tabriz, iran Nighttime in a city, folio from an album | Vermilion Pink: red lead, lead white, vermilion; orpiment, red lead, lead white; vermilion, red lead, orpiment | Orpiment; orpiment, vermilion; orpiment, lead white | Ultramarine | Lead white | Antlerite, with some azurite; antlerite, atacamite, malachite, azurite in various mixtures Malachite, calcite; orpiment, indigo | Orpiment, red lead, lead white; orpiment, hematite, lead white; | Gold; silver-rich gold Silver | Orange: red lead | Black ink |
27 | 1958.75 C. 1540s, tabriz, iran Nomadic encampment, folio from an album | Hematite, lead white Vermilion; Orpiment, hematite Pink: lead white, organic red | Orpiment; pararealgar with some vermilion | Ultramarine | Lead white | Orpiment, indigo; copper green (with some ultramarine) | Orpiment, red lead, lead white; pararealgar, orpiment, lead white; vermilion, pararealgar | Gold; silver-rich gold Silver | Orange: red lead; lead white, orpiment, vermilion Grey: lead white, carbon black | Black ink |
28 | 1979.20 1531–1532 (text), c. 1540 (paintings) uzbekistan and c. 1620 (paintings repainted), india Manuscript of the bustan (orchard) by sa`di | Hematite | Orpiment Folio 119 –indian yellow; possible lead tin yellow | Ultramarine | Lead white | Copper chloride Orpiment, indigo Folio 119-copper chloride Unknown lead-tin green (low copper) | Hematite, orpiment | Silver Gold, silver-rich gold | Orange: red lead | |
29 | 1957.140 1551, bukhara, uzbekistan Manuscript of the timurnama by hatifi | Vermilion Hematite, red lead Hematite | Orpiment | Dark: ultramarine Light: ultramarine, lead wnite | Lead white | Copper chloride Light: copper chloride, lead white Orpiment, indigo | Hematite, orpiment | Two folios: tin One folio: silver All: gold, silver-rich gold | Orange: orpiment, hematite | |
30 | 1958.62 C. 1560, mashhad, iran Horseman and running page, illustrated folio from an album | Vermilion Pink: red lead, lead white; red lead, vermilion, lead white | Orpiment with some vermilion | Ultramarine | Lead white | Atacamite, lead white | Hematite, carbon black | Gold Silver | Orange: red lead Gray: lead white, carbon black | Red ink |
31 | 2002.50.28 1562, shiraz The marriage of zal and rudaba, illustrated folio from the shahnama by firdawsi | Red lead Vermilion | Orpiment | Ultramarine | Lead white | Light green: verdigris, lead white Dark green: verdigris, lead white, prussian blue (later), ultramarine, gold, titanium (later) | NT | Gold | Purple: lead white, gypsum, vermilion | Red ink and dry black carbonaceous material |
32 | 2002.50.34 and .35 1575–1590, shiraz, iran Illustrated folios (2) from the shahnama by firdawsi | Red lead Vermilion Organic red | Orpiment, sometimes mixed with other colors | Ultramarine Indigo | Lead white | Orpiment, indigo | Hematite Hematite, lead white, orpiment, bone black, red lead, carbon black, vermilion (branches) | Gold Silver | Flesh: red lead, lead white Purple: lead white, ultramarine, organic red; lead white, ultramarine, orpiment, vermilion, organic red | Red ink, black ink |
33 | 2002.50.26 1600–1650, isfahan, iran Siyavush enthroned in a garden pavilion with attendants, illustrated folio from the shahnama by firdawsi | Vermilion Pink: red lead, lead white | Orpiment | Ultramarine | Lead white | Copper green; orpiment, indigo | Vermilion, hematite, red lead | Gold | Orange: red lead Purple: ultramarine, organic red | Black ink |
34 | Villa i tatti, C. 1600, isfahan, iran Illustrated manuscript of farhad and shirin by vashi | Red lead Pink: organic red, red lead, lead white | Orpiment | Ultramarine, sometimes mixed with lead white | Lead white | Copper green, lead white; orpiment, indigo | Hematite, vermilion, red lead; hematite, red lead, orpiment | Gold; silver-rich gold Silver | Orange: red lead, orpiment Purple: ultramarine, organic red, sometimes mixed with lead white Gray: lead white, carbon black | Black ink |
35 | Villa i tatti, 16th century, bukhara, uzbekistan and 1605–1627, india The assembly of sages (with added right panel) | Vermilion; red lead; red lead, vermilion; red lead, hematite Pink: organic red, lead white | Orpiment Added panel: indian yellow | Ultramarine, sometimes mixed with lead white; ultramarine, azurite Verso: ultramarine | Lead white | Orpiment, indigo; copper-tin–lead green; copper green, sometimes mixed with lead white; copper green, ultramarine; copper green, red lead, vermilion Verso: copper green Added panel: copper green, indian yellow | Hematite, red lead | Gold | Orange: red lead Purple: organic red, ultramarine, red lead Added panel: organic red, azurite, red lead Gray: lead white, carbon black | Black ink |
36 | 1984.463 C. 1669–1670, iran, illustrated manuscript of a compendium of knowledge (jung), made for shah sulayman | Organic red (illumination & text) Red lead (illumination & text) Vermilion (illumination only) | Indian yellow (illumination & text) Orpiment (illumination only) | Ultramarine (illumination & text) Azurite (illumination & text) | Lead white (illumination & text) | Malachite (illumination) Copper green (text only) Copper blue-green (text only) | NT | Gold (illumination & text) Silver (text) | Orange: red lead (illumination & text) Realgar-pararealgar (text only) | |
37 | 1960.76 C. 1750s, iran Young woman with flower, folio from an albuma | Organic red Organic red, lead white | Indian yellow | Ultramarine | Lead white | Dark green: indigo and indian yellow Light green: indigo and orpiment | n/a | Gold | Orange: red lead Purple: indigo, lead white, organic red | Traces of dry black carbonaceous media |
38 | 1960.77 C. 1750s, iran Youth with wine cup and ewer and hookah, folio from an albuma | Organic red | Indian yellow | Azurite (lead white) Ultramarine | Lead white | Indigo and indian yellow | NT | Gold | Orange: red lead | Traces of dry black carbonaceous media |
39 | 1958.143 1859, iran Portrait of five seated clerics, folio from an album | Red lead | Unid. | Prussian blue, lead white Indigo and ultramarine | Lead white | Orpiment and indigo | NT | Gold | Purple: unid., lead white | Graphite |
40 | 1958.234 1894–1895, iran Imam ali with hasan and husayn, folio from an album | Red lead Organic red | n/a | Ultramarine | Lead white | Emerald green; indigo, barium sulfate Emerald green, barium sulfate | n/a | Gold | Orange: red lead | Dry black carbonaceous material |
41 | 1959.207 19th century, iran Nuts and flowers, folio from an album | Red lead, barium sulfate, organic red | Orpiment | Ultramarine | Lead white | Orpiment, indigo | Orpiment, hematite | Gold | Purple: lead white, unid. | Graphite |
42 | 1960.161.47 Mid to late 19th century, iran Qajar youth seated in a chair with waterpipe and sword, folio from an album | Red lead, barium sulfate, organic red | Orpiment, zinc phase present | n/a | Lead white, barium sulfate Calcite | Emerald green | Red lead, hematite | Grey: tin | Orange: red lead | Charcoal |
43 | 2002.50.9 Mid-19th century, iran Portrait of a youth | Vermilion, lead chromate | Lead chromate, minor vermilion | Lead white, unid. | Lead white | Green (robe trim): chrome green, emerald green Green sleeve: ultramarine, lead chromate, lead white, emerald green | n/a | n/a | Orange: lead chromate, vermilion | Graphite |
44 | 1958.137 Late 19th century, iran Imam ‘ali with hasan and husayn | Red lead; vermilion | Orpiment | Ultramarine | Lead white | Emerald green | Red lead, hematite | Brass | n/a | Graphite |
45 | 1958.250.120 Late 19th century, iran Ghazals beauty of the beloved, illustrated folio from the divan of hafiz with two 19th-century miniatures added | Red lead Vermilion Organic red | Orpiment | Ultramarine | Lead white | Orpiment and indigo Copper green | Hematite, red lead | Gold | Purple: unid |