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Table 1 The characteristics and major applications of each technique used in the field of architectural heritage conservation

From: Recent progress in instrumental techniques for architectural heritage materials

Analytical technique

Destructiveness

Portability

Compatibility with synchrotron radiation sources

Typical applications

OM

Micro-destructive/non-destructive

Portable

No

Morphology characterization of mortar, black crust, brick, ceramic, glass and the corresponding decay processes

AFM

Micro-destructive

Not portable

No

Surface analysis (roughness, symmetry and gloss level) of materials before and after physical and chemical treatments

SEM

Destructive

Not portable

No

Surface characterization of mortar, pigment, stone, etc. Equipped with EDX, it can provide elemental analysis

ESEM

Destructive

Not portable

No

Morphology characterization of biological deposition and biofilm

TEM

Destructive

Not portable

No

Cross-section characterization of formation mechanism of inorganic and organic compounds present in the interface of different materials

UV–vis

Destructive

Portable

No

Characterization of pigment and stained glass collected from ancient buildings.

LIBS

Micro-destructive

Not portable

No

Elemental and cross-section analysis for pigment, stone, brick, etc

FTIR

Destructive/non-destructive

Portable

No

Identification of organic functional groups in mortar, pigment, black crust, etc

Raman

Destructive/non-destructive

Portable

No

Characterization of pigment and dye used in architectural heritage

TG/DTA/DSC

Destructive

Not portable

No

Identification of the degree of carbonation and hydration reactions of mortars

XRF

Destructive/non-destructive

Portable

Yes

Major and trace elemental analysis for pigment, stone, mortar, etc. Assessment of biological and pollution impact on architectural materials

XRD

Destructive

Portable

Yes

Identification of crystalline phases of mortar, brick, pigment, stone, additive, etc

XPS

Destructive

Not portable

No

Characterization of surface contamination or corrosion products

XAS (XANES/EXAFS)

Non-destructive

Not portable

Yes

Detection of specific elements presented in glass, pigment, stone, ceramic, metal, mortar, wood, etc

PIXE/PIGE

Non-destructive

Not portable

No

Identification of elements at trace level presented in pigment, glass, mortar, etc

MS-based techniques

Destructive

Not portable

No

Identification and quantification of unknown organic compounds at molecular level