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Table 2 List of main pigments used in architectural heritage characterized by Raman spectroscopy

From: Recent progress in instrumental techniques for architectural heritage materials

Color

Pigment name

Chemical formula

Band wavenumber (cm−1) and relative intensity

Chromophore

Sampling site

Refs.

Black

Ivory black

Ca3(PO4)2 + C +MgSO4

961m; 1325vs; 1580vs

C

Wall painting

[143, 144]

Lamp black

C

1325vs; 1580vs

C

Wall painting

[145]

Blue

Azurite

Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2

145w; 180w; 250m; 284w; 335w; 403vs; 545w; 746sh; 767m; 839m; 940w; 1098m; 1432m; 1459w; 1580m; 1623vw

Cu2+

Marble monument/wall painting

[146]

Cerulean blue

CoO·nSnO2

495m; 532s; 674vs

Co2+

Wall painting

[147]

Cobalt blue

CoO·Al2O3

203vs; 512vs

Co2+

Glazed tile decorative material

[148]

Egyptian blue

CaCuSi4O10

114m; 137m; 200w; 230w; 358m; 377m; 430vs; 475m; 571w; 597vw; 762w; 789w; 992w; 1012w; 1040w; 1086s

Cu2+

Wall painting

[136, 149]

Lazurite

Na8[Al6Si6O24]Sn

258w; 548vs; 822w; 1096m

S3−

Wooden tower/monstrance

[16, 133]

Posnjakite

CuSO4·3Cu(OH)2·H2O

135vw; 208vw; 278vw; 327vw; 467w; 612w; 983vs; 1092vw; 1139vw

Cu2+

Copper-based alloy/wall painting

[150, 151]

Prussian blue

Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3·14-16H2O

282vw; 538vw; 2102m; 2154vs

Fe3+

Damaged stuccowork/wooden materials

[152]

Smalt

CoO·nSiO2

462vs; 917m

Co2+

Wall painting

[136]

Green

Atacamite

CuCl2·3Cu(OH)2

122m; 149m; 360w; 513vs; 821m; 846s; 911s; 974s

Cu2+

Wall painting

[153]

Chromium oxide

Cr2O3

221vw; 308w; 349w; 552vs; 611w

Cr3+

Wall painting

[154]

Cobalt green

CoO·nZnO

328br; 434vs; 471m; 555s

Co2+

Wall painting

[155]

Chrysocolla

CuSiO3·nH2O

274w; 331w; 429w; 460w; 674w; 744w; 906vw; 938vw

Cu2+

Wall painting

[156]

Green earth

Variations on K[(Al3+, Fe3+)(Fe2+, Mg2+)]

1194w; 1225m; 1270w; 1350s; 1459w; 1486m; 1600s

Fe2+, Fe3+

Wall painting

[157]

Malachite

Cu2(CO)3(OH)2

155s; 178s; 217m; 268m; 354m; 433vs; 509m; 533s; 558w; 757vw; 1051m; 1085m; 1492vs

Cu2+

Wall painting/glass

[19, 158]

Verdigris

Cu(C2H3O2)2·2Cu(OH)2

139vw; 181w; 231w; 328w; 392w; 512w; 618w; 680w; 939s; 1351w; 1417m; 1441m; 1552w; 2937vs; 2988m; 3026w

Cu2+

Stone architecture

[159]

Scheele’s green

Cu(AsO2)2

136s; 201m; 236w; 275m; 370vs; 445w; 495m; 537vw; 657vw; 780s

Cu2+

Polychrome decoration of architectural facade

[160]

Orange

Mars orange

Fe2O3

224vs; 291vs; 407m; 494w; 608m

Fe3+

Glazed tile decorative material

[161]

Red

Litharge

PbO

145vs; 285vw; 336w

Pb2+

Wall painting

[162]

Cinnabar

α-HgS

544vs; 478s; 390w; 312w; 227w; 161w

Hg2+

Stone architecture/wall painting

[163, 164]

Realgar

α-As4S4

142w; 164w; 171w; 182vs; 192s; 220s; 233m; 327vw; 342m; 354s; 367w; 375w

As2+

Wall painting

[165]

Red lead

Pb3O4

122vs; 149m; 223w; 313w; 340vw; 390w; 480vw; 548vs

Pb2+, Pb4+

Wall painting

[136, 166]

Vermilion

HgS

252vs; 282w; 343m

Hg2+

Polychrome decoration of wooden structure

[167]

Red ochre

Fe2O3 + clay + silica

220vs; 286vs; 402m; 491w; 601w

Fe3+

Stone architecture/wall painting

[54, 166]

Yellow

Barium yellow

BaCrO4

352m; 355sh; 403w; 427vw; 863vs; 901m

Cr6+

Wooden tower

[16]

Cadmium yellow

CdS

304vs; 609s

Cd2+

Wall painting

[168]

Chrome yellow

PbCrO4

338w; 360s; 372m; 403w; 841vs

Pb2+, Cr4+

Wall painting

[145]

Cobalt yellow

K3[Co(NO2)6]·xH2O

179m; 274s; 304vs; 821vs; 836m; 1257w; 1326vs; 1398w

Co2+

Wall painting

[168]

Gamboge

C38H44O8 and C29H36O6

1215w; 1246m; 1265w; 1330w; 1433m; 1592s; 1633m

Gambocic acid

Wall painting

[150]

Indian yellow

MgC19H16O11·5H2O

484w; 610w; 631w; 697w; 772vw; 811w; 877vw; 1009vw; 1047w; 1097w; 1127s; 1178m; 1218m; 1266vw; 1345s; 1414w; 1476s; 1503s; 1599vs

Euxanthic acid

Wall painting

[18]

Lead tin yellow

Pb2SnO4

129vs; 196s; 275w; 291w; 303w; 379w; 457m; 525w

Pb2+, Sn4+

Glazed tile

[148]

Massicot

PbO

143vs; 289s; 385w

Pb2+

Wall painting

[63]

Naples yellow

Pb2Sb2O7

140vs; 329m; 448w

Pb2+, Sb5+

Wall painting

[18]

Orpiment

As2S3

136w; 154s; 181vw; 202w; 220vw; 230vw; 292m; 309s; 353vs; 381w

As3+

Monstrance

[133]

Saffron

C20H24O4

1165m; 1210w; 1282vw; 1536vs

Crocetin

Wall painting

[169]

Zinc yellow

ZnCrO4

343m; 357sh; 370w; 409w; 772w; 872vs; 892m; 941m

Cr6+

Copper-alloy monuments

[170]

White

Barium white

BaSO4

453m; 461w; 616w; 647w; 988vs

–

Stucco surface

[171]

Zinc white

ZnO

331w; 383w; 438vs

–

Stone surface

[172]

Lead white

2PbCO3·Pb(OH)2

667vw; 665vw; 687vw; 829vw; 1050vs

–

Stone surface

[173]

Bone white

Ca3(PO4)2

431w; 590w; 961vs; 1046w; 1071vw

–

Wall painting

[174]

Chalk

CaCO3

157vw; 282vw; 1088vs

–

Stone architecture

[175]

Gypsum

CaSO4·2H2O

181w; 414m; 493w; 619vw; 670vw; 1007vs; 1132m

–

Stone architecture

[36]

Lithopone

ZnS + BaSO4

216w; 276vw; 342m; 453m; 461w; 616w; 647w; 988vs

–

Wall painting

[165]

  1. s strong, m medium, w weak, v very, sh shoulder, br broad