Integrated study on the conservation of ecocultural heritage in the Tiantai Mountain area, China

Abstract

This study deeply analyzes the ecocultural heritage of the Tiantai Mountain area in Eastern China, assesses its current status and explores effective mechanisms for its conservation and construction. Employing remote sensing technology, kernel density analysis and Minimum Cumulative Resistance Model, the study comprehensively evaluated the environmental characteristics of the region and its role in historical and modern conservation efforts. The results demonstrate the unique distribution patterns of ecocultural heritage in various conservation zones, such as restoration, controlled construction and core conservation zone. Furthermore, the study highlights the importance of religious beliefs and clan systems in the preservation of traditional knowledge and practices, with significant impacts of local community participation on conservation strategies. This research provides new theoretical and practical support for the implemention of ecocultural heritage conservation and development within religiously significant areas, highlights the need for conservation measures and synergistic strategies between ecological and cultural practices.

Introduction

Ecocultural heritage, an extension of biodiversity studies, encompasses a wide range of life forms and ecosystems that have been shaped and influenced by human cultural activities within specific geographical spaces [1, 2]. Such as a range of elements from animals and plants to ecosystems, as well as traditional knowledge, cultural expressions, technologies and practices that are closely linked to the elements. The conceptual connotation of ecocultural heritage emphasises the significance of local communities' accumulated traditional knowledge and skills through long-term adaptation to environmental changes and the utilization and management of natural resources [3], and argues that these cultural resources play a crucial role in the daily lives and community identity of local people. Therefore, ecological cultural heritage conservation means advocating the conservation of cultural heritages along with its surrounding ecological environment and deeper cultural resources such as folklore, skills and memories [4].

Chinese famous mountains have traditionally been sites of spiritual interaction between humans and nature and the primary sources of landscape culture, highlighting the close connection between landscape culture and these renowned mountains and rivers [5]. In ancient societies, the chinese ancestors revered mountains, considering them as abodes of deities. Due to their remote locations from cities, monks and Taoist priests built temples and monasteries on these mountains, establishing bases for religious activities and turning religious mountains into political and economic entities independent of local authorities. Because of its beautiful and strange natural environment, mountains were endowed with myths and beliefs by ancient people, and gave birth to rich and diverse cultural types [6, 7]. Current research on China's famous mountains predominantly focuses on three aspects [8]:

• 1. Historical and cultural exploration: Religion has a profound influence on the formation of scenic characteristics of famous mountains. From the overall layout, landscape spatial sequence and artistic conception creation, famous mountains show the ancient people's special cognition of fairyland, reflecting the changing process from fear to belief to transformation and utilization of mountain worship concept [9, 10].

• 2. Ecological environment studies: Often remote from urban areas, these mountains are rich in biodiversity and hold significant ecological value. Scholars emphasize the importance of biodiversity and inter-species relationships, and explore the effects of vegetation on micro-climates [11].

• 3. Conservation and utilization approaches: In the construction process of scenic spots from famous mountains to famous mountains, scholars used remote sensing and geographic information system to establish an ecological security evaluation model [12, 13], analyze tourists' satisfaction with scenic spots, and put forward suggestions for the protection construction of scenic spots from famous mountains [14, 15].

Local governments frequently use scenic resource evaluation methods to assess both tangible and intangible landscape or heritage resources of religious mountains. This often results in a quality resource-oriented and heritage-isolated approach to mountain protection [16, 17]. Consequently, the management process tends to separate the protection of cultural heritage from biodiversity, focusing on one aspect at a time. Residents of famous mountains are either relocated or their living methods and activities in surrounding communities are strictly controlled, limiting their participation in the management of these scenic spots [18, 19]. Despite existing regulations and guidance on famous mountain protection in China, such as the "Guidance on Establishing a National Park-centered System of Nature Reserves" (2019), challenges remain in defining protected area boundaries, improving related management systems and legal norms, and resolving conflicts between protection and development. These issues highlight the urgent need for comprehensive and holistic approaches to famous mountain protection, emphasizing the need to delve deeper into cultural essence and spiritual content.

Ecocultural heritage refers to the biodiversity formed or influenced by human cultural activities within a specific geographic area, along with related cultural expressions and practices [20]. This concept emphasizes the interactive relationship between ecology and culture, revealing the profound connection between natural environments and human cultures [21,22,23]. Strategies for safeguarding ecocultural heritage combine traditional biodiversity conservation—such as species preservation and ecological management—with the protection of cultural heritages, including traditional knowledge, customs, and historical artifacts. By adopting such a comprehensive protection strategy, the sustainability of ecocultural heritage is enhanced, promoting synergy between nature conservation and cultural preservation.

This paper proposes an ecocultural heritage perspective for the protection of famous religious mountains. Research employs a three-phase approach: "Assessment of the current situation of ecocultural heritage—Analysis on the construction and protection mechanism of ecocultural heritage—Construction of the ecocultural heritage protection pattern " aiming to enhance the conservation of cultural heritage and biodiversity in famous mountain area. It underscores the deep interconnections between local cultures and ecological systems, advocates for the application of traditional knowledge in conservation efforts, and provides theoretical and empirical support for the development of protected areas. The paper structure includes indirect biodiversity assessment models based on remote sensing data, cultural heritage distribution analysis using kernel density analysis, and ecocultural heritage index analysis for spatial distribution relationships. It further explores the role and mechanism of local culture in cultural heritage construction and protection and ecosystem restoration through local histories, evaluating the relationship between local environmental management and heritage protection. The findings lead to the development of a tailored ecocultural heritage protection strategy for the Tiantai Mountain area, with broader implications for future conservation and development initiatives in similar regions.

Methods

Study area

Tiantai Mountain area located in the Zhejiang province on the eastern coast of China. According to the Zhejiang Provincial Ecological Function Zone Text published by the Zhejiang Provincial Government, the Tiantai Mountain area includes the eastern part of Tiantai County, Xinchang County, the southwestern part of Shengzhou City, the western part of Ninghai County, and the western part of Fenghua District, covers 48 streets (towns and townships) and approximately 6165 km² (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1

Geographical location and elevation of Tiantai Mountain

The Tiantai Mountain area is a subtropical monsoon climate zone, experiences distinct seasons with frequent summer typhoons and heavy rainfall. Its terrain features predominantly low mountains and basins, with hills comprising over 80% of the landscape, and includes mountain streams with elevations over 500 m, culminating at Huading Mountain's peak of 1098 m. The basic natural condition of Tiantai Mountain can be seen in Fig. 2. The terrain is primarily composed of low mountains and basins, with hills accounting for more than 80% of the area [24]. The soil types include lateritic soil, yellow soil, rocky soil, alluvial soil, and paddy soil. Its forest vegetation can be divided into evergreen broadleaf forest, mixed evergreen and deciduous broadleaf forest, mixed coniferous and broadleaf forest, warm coniferous forest, temperate coniferous forest, bamboo forest, moss dwarf forest on mountain tops, and shrubbery. The area is home to 47 species of mammals, 174 species of birds (mostly migratory), 55 species of fish, and 665 species of wild plants. Among the plants, there are 38 species of gymnosperms, 588 species of dicotyledons, and 39 species of monocotyledons.

Fig. 2

Natural environmental data of the Tiantai Mountain area. 1 Land Use, 2 Soil types, 3 Aspect 4 Slope

"Tiantai" means the place of celestial constellations and the abode of immortals (Appendix A). In the year 178 AD, Taoist religious figures opened the mountains for road construction, tea cultivation, medicinal herb collection, discipleship, and preaching. During the early Wei and Jin Dynasties (222 AD–353 AD), influenced by Taoist metaphysical thought, literati and scholars aspired for seclusion and the pursuit of Taoism, leading many poets and visitors to flock to Tiantai Mountain, with some even settling there permanently [25]. In the Southern Dynasties period (420 AD–589 AD), the ruling elite's enthusiasm for Buddhism attracted a large number of monks to the area for meditation and preaching, establishing the Buddhist Tiantai sect and creating a situation of coexistence and development between Taoism and Buddhism. With the early religious figures and literati's development, the human settlement environment in the Tiantai Mountain area began to take shape. During the Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279), with the southward migration of China's political and cultural center, advanced agricultural production techniques and handicraft skills from the north were introduced, driving the progress of local traditional agriculture and manufacturing. A large number of people from the north migrated to Tiantai through various channels and settled in clusters. In subsequent periods, the Tiantai Mountain area entered a stable development phase.

The influx of people from different backgrounds led to a diverse range of cultural types in the Tiantai Mountain area. Traditional knowledge, combined with the local ecological environment, created a rich cultural heritage [26, 27]. The less fertile soil and limited arable land area encouraged local residents to spontaneously develop knowledge for sustainable resource management, ensuring both the tangible and intangible transmission of traditional culture and protecting the local ecological environment. Today, over 40% of the population in the Tiantai Mountain area still lives in rural areas, mainly engaged in agriculture, processing, and tourism. Limited employment opportunities lead many young people to work in larger cities, leaving mainly the elderly in the villages, many of whom have lost their labor capacity and can only engage in simple handicraft activities.

Research framework

In this study, the Research framework is divided into three steps (Fig. 3):

• 1. Assessing the Current Status of ecocultural heritage in the Tiantai Mountain Area: Through biodiversity assessment and cultural heritage kernel density analysis, the biodiversity and cultural heritage richness in the Tiantai Mountain area are evaluated respectively. The ecocultural heritage Index is then used to illustrate their spatial connections.

• 2. Construction and Protection Mechanism Analysis of ecocultural heritage: This step involves analyzing the mechanisms of landscape construction and resource utilization in the Tiantai Mountain area, integrating historical literature and research materials.

• 3. Constructing the ecocultural heritage Protection Pattern for the Tiantai Mountain Area: The Minimum Cumulative Resistance (MCR) theory is applied to create ecocultural heritage protection corridors and clusters, aiming to preserve the cultural heritage and biodiversity of the Tiantai Mountain area at an overall regional level.

Fig. 3

Research framework

Data collection and processing

Assessment of biological diversity

This paper assesses the current biodiversity status in the Tiantai Mountain area using remote sensing technology. Methods to biodiversity monitoring and assessment based on remote sensing can be categorized as direct and indirect. The direct method identifies species or community types and their distributions with high-resolution remote sensing data [28, 29], but due to technical limitations, most studies rely on indirect methods. The indirect method derives indicators that can reflect biodiversity, such as habitat quality, net primary productivity, and normalized difference vegetation index [30]. It has been successfully used in studies such as monitoring the α diversity of restored grassland plots in the central Wood River, Nebraska, USA [31], the dynamics of vegetation and biodiversity relationships on farms in eastern Ontario, Canada [32], and vegetation richness assessments in three biodiversity hotspots: the Eastern Himalayas, the Indo-Burma region, and the Western Ghats [33]. Especially in areas with limited comprehensive field surveys, remote sensing and ecological models provide essential evaluations of regional biodiversity.

Biodiversity encompasses three levels: genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity. In remote sensing evaluations of biodiversity, some scholars choose landscape structure as the fourth level. Landscape structure represents the categories and heterogeneity of the landscape. Landscape heterogeneity can enhance the cohabitation potential of species. The more balanced the landscape categories are, the better the landscape structure condition is, and the richer the regional landscape biodiversity is [34]. Although both ecosystems and landscapes focus on ecological diversity, they differ in perspective and scale: ecosystem diversity centers on internal processes and interactions, whereas landscape diversity considers the arrangement and interactions of various ecosystems or land use types over a broader spatial scale, especially in relation to human activities.

Given that biodiversity manifestation varies across genetic, species, ecosystem, and landscape levels within the same area, assessing biodiversity from only one level is not comprehensive [35]. Therefore, this study adopts Yang's 2015 model for county-scale biodiversity assessment [36]. Based on the relevance and indicative degree of indicators to the levels of biodiversity connotation, five sub-indicators were selected (Table 1).

Table 1 Indicators for biodiversity assessment

Based on the calculation methods provided in Table 1, the raster data is input into GIS for normalization. After this process, weights are assigned to the five indicators in accordance with the "Regional Biodiversity Evaluation Standards."

$$BD \, = \, HQI \times \beta_{1} + NPP \times \beta_{2} + S_{p} \times \beta_{3} + NDVI \times \beta_{4} + SHDI \times \beta_{5}$$

(6)

In formula: β_i represents the weight of each sub-indicator.

For data acquisition, 2020 baseline data for the TMAis used. The monthly surface solar radiation data [41], monthly total precipitation data [42], and the monthly average temperature data [43] were all acquired from the National Tibetan Plateau Data Center, which is a part of the Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research at the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Additionally, the NDVI time series data and land use data [44] were downloaded from the Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, affiliated with the Chinese Academy of Sciences.

In terms of data processing, the landscape pattern index is calculated using Fragstats 4.2 software, based on the moving window method for the Shannon Diversity Index. The Habitat Quality Index is calculated using the habitat quality module of the InVest 3.7.0 model. The Net Primary Productivity Index is processed using Zhu Wenquan's improved NPP_model_v1 based on the CASA model [45].

Cultural heritage richness

In China, cultural heritage can be categorized into macro-level heritage corridors, meso-level historical and cultural famous cities, towns, and villages, and micro-level cultural relics protection units and intangible cultural heritage. In this paper, the degree of spatial clustering of cultural heritage is chosen to represent the richness of cultural heritage. This includes the use of traditional cultural villages and cultural relics protection units as indicators of tangible cultural heritage, and intangible cultural heritage inheritance bases as indicators of intangible cultural heritage.

For data acquisition, Notice on Strengthening the Protection of Cultural Heritage issued by the State Council in 2005 addresses the issues faced in the protection of tangible and intangible cultural heritage. Consequently, a hierarchical system of List of Cultural Relics Protection Units and List of Intangible Cultural Heritage has been constructed at the national, provincial, municipal and county levels. Additionally, the "List of Traditional Villages of China" was initiated to protect villages with significant historical or memorial value, and reflecting the traditional features and local ethnic characteristics of various historical periods [46] (Table 2).

Table 2 List and sources of cultural heritage inventory data

In terms of data processing, the study focuses on the list of cultural relics protection units, traditional villages and intangible cultural heritage announced by national authorities. Initially, the addresses, of cultural heritages were obtained through the Tencent Map API coordinate picker. GIS tools are then used to construct vector databases for cultural relics protection units, traditional villages and intangible cultural heritage (Point) in the Tiantai Mountain area. When national, provincial, municipal and county level cultural heritage indicators overlap, the coordinates and attributes of the national-level indicators are retained. Subsequently, the aggregation degree of each category is analyzed using kernel density analysis to obtain the respective kernel density distribution map. The commonly used approach for Kernel density analysis is the Rosenblatt-Parzen kernel estimator [47], which can be expressed mathematically as follows:

$$g(x) = \frac{1}{nh}\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{n} {k\left( {\frac{{x - X_{i} }}{h}} \right)}$$

(7)

In formula: k represents the kernel function, h > 0 denotes the bandwidth, and (x-Xi) represents the distance from the estimation point x to the event Xi. The coupling coordination index is a measure of the degree of coupling and coordination.

$$C{\text{H}} = MCH + ICH$$

(8)

In formula: MCH and ICH represent the spatial clustering degree of corresponding cultural heritage.

Finally, the cultural heritages vector spatial map of the Tiantai Mountain area is obtained by overlaying the weights of tangible and intangible cultural heritage. In addition to analysing the data based on the official lists, we also conducted field surveys in traditional cultural villages, and then obtained ancient texts documenting the history and population of the villages. This enabled us to conduct research on the current status of cultural heritage conservation and transmission in these villages.

Ecocultural heritage index

Comparative analyses of biodiversity and cultural heritage data from different regions and types were conducted, including independent and cross-validation of the components of the index to ensure they accurately reflect the status of ecocultural heritage. The ultimate goal of our research is to develop a regional conservation framework based on the current status of biodiversity and cultural heritage conservation. Areas rich in cultural heritage and high in biodiversity were designated as ecocultural heritage core zones; areas lacking cultural heritage and low in biodiversity were designated as ecocultural heritage restoration zones; the rest of the area were designated as ecocultural heritage controlled construction zones.

$${\text{EHI}} = \frac{{{\text{BD}} + {\text{CH}}}}{2}$$

(9)

In formula: EHI represents the ecocultural Heritage Index, BD stands for the results of biodiversity assessments, and CH denotes the richness of cultural heritage.

Minimum cumulative resistance model

The Minimum Cumulative Resistance (MCR) model is used to establish the most efficient pathways connecting significant ecocultural heritage points within the Tiantai Mountain area. By quantitatively analyzing the resistance to movement imposed by natural and anthropogenic factors, this model identifies the optimal routes that minimize overall travel costs or barriers. The calculation for the MCR is based on the following:

$${\text{MCR}} = \int {_{{{\text{min}}}} } \sum\limits_{j = n}^{i = m} {\left( {D_{ij} \times R_{i} } \right)}$$

(10)

In formula: MCR represents the minimum cumulative resistance value D_ij stands for the spatial distance from an experiencer moving from environmental element i to heritage source j. R_i is the resistance coefficient of environmental element i to the spatial movement.

Utilizing the ArcGIS platform, source locations are transformed into source points. With the Tiantai Mountain Minimum Resistance Surface model and employing the Cost-distance module, it computes the cost distance from each source point to all other source points and generates the corresponding back-trace connections. These connections are inputted into the cost-path module to calculate the cost paths from each source point to others, and the raster format of cost paths is then converted into vector pathways. This process results in the creation of potential protection corridors for the cultural landscape in the Tiantai Mountain area.

The Gravity Model can quantitatively evaluate the interaction force between each source location, thereby more scientifically evaluating the relative importance of corridors. The formula is as follows:

$$G_{{{\text{ab}}}} = \frac{{N_{a} N_{b} }}{{D_{ab}^{2} }} = \frac{{\left[ {\frac{1}{Pa}In\left( {S_{a} } \right)} \right]\left[ {\frac{1}{{P_{b} }}In(S_{b} )} \right]}}{{\left( {\frac{{L_{ab} }}{{L_{\max } }}} \right)}} = \frac{{L_{\max }^{2} In\left( {S_{a} } \right)In(S_{b} )}}{{L_{ab}^{2} P_{a} P_{b} }}$$

(11)

In formula: G_ab is the interaction intensity between patches a and b. N represents the weight value of the patch. P is the resistance value of the patch. S indicates the area of the patch. L_ab is the cumulative resistance value from patch a to b. L_max is the maximum resistance value among the corridors (Figs. 4, 5).

Fig. 4

Results of biological diversity assessment in Tiantai Mountain area

Fig. 5

Cultural heritage richness for Tiantai Mountain area

Results

Current status of ecocultural heritages

Figure 4.1 shows the Habitat Quality Index, Fig. 4.2 shows Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, Fig. 4.3 shows Net Primary Productivity Index, Fig. 4.4 shows Shannon Diversity Index, Fig. 4.5 shows Habitat Area Percentage. Fig. 5.1 shows the spatial clustering degree of traditional cultural villages, Fig 5.2 shows the spatial clustering degree of cultural relics protection units, and Fig 5.3 shows the spatial clustering degree of intangible cultural heritage. Biodiversity hotspots (Fig. 6.1) are mainly concentrated in the central mountainous areas, generally above 200 m above sea level. These areas are mainly forest and grassland, which are classified as forest parks or forestry stations with strict ecological environmental management. The low-altitude areas are mainly urban construction land with lower biodiversity indices.

Fig. 6

Current state of biodiversity and cultural heritages

Cultural heritages hotspots (Fig. 6.2), such as the Guoqing Temple area, Xuedou Mountain, and Wozhou Lake, which have been developed as scenic spots. These sites are home to numerous temples and Taoist shrines, preserving many religious traditions and ceremonies. Lingxi Ancient Village and Qiantong Ancient Town are village settlements with relatively flat terrain, hosting a wealth of intangible cultural heritage inheritors and developed agriculture. The rest areas, where villages are sparsely distributed, lack prominent cultural heritage hotspots. Based on field research and collected documents, cultural relics protection units and intangible cultural heritage were categorized. This resulted in identifying 155 intangible cultural heritages, 102 cultural relics protection units, and 40 traditional cultural villages.

Overlaying the results of biodiversity assessments with those of cultural heritage richness assessments yields a spatial relationship between the two, as viewed through the ecocultural heritage index (Fig. 7.1). According to the outcomes of practical research (Fig. 7.2), we classify regions with a ecocultural heritage index from 0.11 to 0.36 as ecocultural heritage restoration zones, from 0.36 to 0.51 as ecocultural heritage controlled construction zones, and from 0.51 to 0.72 as ecocultural heritage conservation zones. The photo of the partition can be seen in Fig. 8.

Fig. 7

The spatial relationship between biodiversity and cultural heritage richness

Fig. 8

Pictures of different areas in Tiantai Mountain area

The ecocultural heritage core conservation zones include regions a and e of mountainous scenic areas, region f of southern village hill areas and region c of northeastern valley plains. These are primarily distributed in hilly mountainous areas with a slope of 15° to 35° and an altitude above 150 m above sea level; land use types are diverse, predominantly forests and farmland, with soil types being yellow soils rich in organic matter. Regions a and e exhibit a zonal distribution, extending from Tiantai Mountain through Tongbai Mountain to Huading Mountain, encompassing the Tiantai and Taimu Mountain scenic areas. This area boasts exceptional natural landscapes and abundant biological resources, and also preserves a large number of Buddhist temples and Taoist monasteries.

Due to the location of Buddhist temples, Taoist monasteries and blessed places mostly built between the foothills, the coupling coordination D value in the Guoqing Temple area gradually increases from the valley to the foothills. The D value for Tiantai Mountain radiates outward from the Wozhou Mountain Zhenjun Temple. Wozhou Mountain a-2, recognized as the fifteenth Taoist blessed land, features temples constructed along the mountain, drawing worshippers from within a hundred miles during festivals and fairs. These events gather the essence of traditional folk art from the surrounding areas, forming an important cultural hub. Qiantong Ancient Town (region g) is culturally diverse, with several traditional handicraft inheritance bases. The southern village area (region f) has a land use pattern combining forest shrubs and farmland, reflecting diverse agricultural types related to the locally rich organic yellow soil. Terraced fields built along the mountains preserve a rich variety of genetic resources. The northeastern high ecocultural diversity area, mostly in the valley plains (region c), is near Xuedou mountain scenic area. This area forms part of the Yan river alluvial plain, characterized by sandy soil.

The ecocultural heritage controlled construction zones are zonally distributed in mountainous plains below 150 m altitude and with slopes less than 15°, and are mainly composed of urban construction land and farmland, with soil types dominated by paddy fields.

The ecocultural heritage restoration zones are concentrated in region b and the eastern coastal plain, typically on steep mountain slopes with gradients above 35°, with soils mostly composed of red soil and coarse-textured soil. These areas have high biodiversity indices, but due to minimal human development and sparse village distribution, they maintain a relatively pristine state. Consequently, the cultural heritage richness index is lower. The overall areas focus on agricultural development and forest conservation.

Ecocultural heritage construction mechanism analysis

The construction process of ecocultural heritage in different periods

Based on the results of field survey and the categorization and protection status of cultural heritages in different periods in the Tiantai Mountain area (Tables 3, 4, 5), this study has analyzed the construction and protection mechanisms of ecocultural heritage in the Tiantai Mountain area.

Table 3 Traditional knowledge in the Tiantai Mountain area, collected and summarized based on field research in traditional cultural villages

Table 4 Types of intangible cultural heritage organized according to the intangible cultural heritage inventory

Table 5 Main types of cultural relics organized according to the cultural relics protection unit inventory

During the Wei and Jin periods, amidst social-political turmoil and cultural pursuits, the rise and spread of Taoism and Buddhism, combined with the pursuit of spiritual solace and escapism by literati and hermits, marked a transformation in the Tiantai Mountain area from a singular agricultural culture to a diversified religious and hermit culture. The area's unique scenic beauty attracted numerous visitors, further enriched by the efforts of literati and hermits who established religious buildings and carved inscriptions into the rocks. These activities deepened the reverence for religion and nature, laying the foundation for the construction and protection of ecocultural heritage in the Tiantai Mountain area and enriching its cultural heritage and landscape resources for future generations.

During the Sui and Tang periods, the construction of the landscape in the Tiantai Mountain area experienced a significant developmental phase. This development was influenced by social-political stability, flourishing religious beliefs, economic growth, and active cultural exchanges, involving diverse social groups. The mutual encouragement between Buddhism and Taoism not only affected the development of religious architecture and art but also profoundly impacted cultural life and aesthetic preferences. Literati contributed to the development of landscape culture through their poems and paintings, turning Tiantai Mountain into a hub of culture and art.

During the Song Dynasty, the scenic construction of Tiantai Mountain area primarily focused on religious development. Cultural dissemination occurred through emperor advocacy, itinerant monks and Taoists, exchanges between literati and religious figures, and literati visits. The influx of northern scholar-officials, due to wars, brought Confucian cultural influences. By establishing academies and engaging in cultural and educational activities, they promoted the reconstruction and development of regional culture, enriching the cultural heritage. The ecocultural heritage included religious buildings, cave sculptures, exquisite gardens, and academies, contributing to the unique cultural ambiance.

During the Ming and Qing periods, with the relative decline of religious influence, the construction of the Tiantai Mountain area was mainly driven by the clan systems and the gentry class. Buddhist temples and Taoist monasteries in Tiantai Mountain were marginalized under the dominant ideology and national system of the unified state, showing a clear decline from their prosperity during the Tang and Song periods. The rise of clan construction led to numerous encroachments on temple properties, with monks and Taoists establishing cooperative relationships with local authorities to protect their interests. The cultural heritage of this period included clan cultural centers like ancestral halls and opera stages, reflecting the cohesiveness and cultural transmission of clan communities. Meanwhile, changes in folk beliefs and the prosperity of opera art reflecting the changes in social cultural practices. Audiences included community members, literati and the broader public, many of whom have a deep interest in religious activities, opera performances and natural landscapes. The management and protection of landscape resources by clans and communities also demonstrated environmental stewardship and responsibility, collectively shaping the unique and rich ecocultural heritage of the Tiantai Mountain area.

The framework for the construction and protection of ecocultural heritage

Based on fieldwork in the Tiantai Mountain region and an analysis of the types and status of cultural heritage throughout different epochs, This study explored the construction and protection mechanisms of ecocultural heritage within the area (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9

The framework for the construction and protection of ecocultural heritage

The endeavor of constructing and safeguarding cultural landscapes by local actors effectively falls into two principal categories: Landscape Construction and Resource Utilization. The nature of the entities involved in these activities has shifted across various historical contexts. Local beliefs, including folk religion, Daoism and the veneration of immortals, and Buddhism, have furnished spiritual guidance for societal respect and protection of the natural surroundings, fostering the development of practices attuned to the ecological environment. An internal transformation between practice and knowledge continually transpires; in the local building process, as local entities deepen their understanding of the environmental context, thereby facilitating the accumulation of knowledge. The enrichment of various knowledge types, in turn, fortifies the methodologies of practice.

In the Tiantai Mountain region, there exists a dynamic and symbiotic logical relationship among beliefs, practices, and knowledge. Beliefs render spiritual guidance for societal reverence and safeguarding of the natural setting and also encourage the unfolding of specific practices harmonized with the ecosystem. Such practices, like the enduring utilization and conservation of native resources, hinge further on profound observations and knowledge accumulation regarding local species and environmental phenomena. This knowledge, particularly traditional insights, not only augments the community’s comprehension of the natural milieu but reciprocally reinforces the substance of beliefs and methodologies of practice. Hence, beliefs catalyze practices dedicated to the respect and preservation of nature, which are underpinned by a deep-seated understanding of the natural environment. This accumulation of knowledge, in turn, enriches the significance of beliefs and the efficacy of practices, engendering a self-reinforcing relational network.

Ecocultural heritage protection pattern

By designating the core areas of ecocultural heritage as conservation source lands, a total of 1047 source lands were identified. Taking into account the actual conditions of the ecocultural heritage patches in the Tiantai Mountain area, the probability of landscape connectivity was set to 0.5. Consequently, Tiantai Mountain ecocultural heritage patches with an area greater than 1.04 square kilometers were identified as ecological source lands, totaling 33 patches. Based on the Gravity Model to extract key corridors, the Gravity Model was used to meticulously calculate the interaction forces among the 33 source lands, constructing an attraction matrix. The 32 corridors with strong interaction forces were designated as important corridors, totaling 551.26 km while the remaining 70 corridors were classified as general corridors, totaling 1524.17 km.

Discussion

Landscape construction and resource utilization

In the Tiantai Mountain area, the conservation of ecocultural heritage has historically been influenced by two main factors: religious faith and the clan system.

Religious faith: Founded on the worship of mountains, this form of religious belief, with its core in revering nature, provides spiritual guidance for the protection of ecocultural heritage in the Tiantai Mountain area. For instance, the local Buddhist Tiantai sect believes in the interconnection of all beings, suggesting that animals and humans possess equal rights. This concept emphasizes the importance of harmonious coexistence between humans and animals, advocating that respect for nature will bring future harvests and rewards. Berkes highlights that many indigenous cultures connect with nature through a spiritual perspective, where conservation is often a byproduct of religious practices aimed at maintaining the balance between humans and the natural world [48]. This resonates with the Buddhist teachings in the Tiantai Mountain area, incorporating nature conservation into daily religious practices.

Clan system: Centered around the clan system, institutional regulations provide constraints for the protection of ecocultural heritage and the preservation of knowledge and skills. For example, clan education and community protocols, preserved in stone inscriptions or on paper in clan temples, guide the leaders in managing daily resource management actions among clan members and community residents. The clan rules, which everyone in the clan must follow, include provisions for water conservancy construction, agricultural production, food storage, and land resource utilization. The clan governance structure in rural China plays a crucial role in resource management and environmental protection, with clan rules often containing terms for sustainable practices, offering institutional support for the protection of ecocultural heritage in the Tiantai Mountain area.

In the specific work of ecocultural heritage conservation, the construction and protection efforts by local community residents also can be categorized into two types: Landscape construction and resource utilization.

Landscape construction: The landscape construction in Tiantai Mountain is significantly shaped by religious elements, including temple buildings, religious sculptures, and mountainous landscapes. The growth of religion fostered innovation in traditional crafts, such as Buddha statues and carvings, thereby promoting the spread of religion and strengthening local ecological protection efforts. Due to the humid environment in the south and the fragility of stone materials, traditional stone carving techniques are not suitable. Community residents have invented the "dry lacquer and ramie" technique using natural materials such as lacquer, ramie, and camphor found in the mountains. This technique, which involves applying dry lacquer to wooden carvings, not only makes the Buddha statues easier to transport but also ensures that they maintain their color and shape over the years. This technique played a crucial role in the dissemination of the Tiantai sect across East Asia.A notable example is the "Fuzhen King Shakya Muni Statue," created by Tiantai craftsmen during the Song dynasty, which remains well-preserved in Japan's Seiryo-ji Temple. This advancement in statue-making techniques underscores the region's historical and cultural influence. This technique demonstrates the locals' ingenious use of natural resources and is a testament to the deep integration of culture and ecology. The numerous temples and scenic spots in the Tiantai Mountain area are closely integrated with landscape construction, representing the material expression of China's traditional sacred spaces within natural mountain forests. This simulates traditional heavenly landscapes within the mountainous scenery, with different religious beliefs being concretely represented through architecture and garden designs. In the chapter "Famous Mountains and Landscape Management" of Mr. Pan Guxi's "Art of Landscape Management in the Jiangnan Area" taking the entrance of Guoqing Temple as an example, it discusses how famous mountains utilize landscape axes and visual composition to create scenery [49, 50]. The further development of Tiantai Mountain not only allowed numerous natural scenic spots to be displayed, but also formed a complete religious architectural complex and because of the successive construction of temples such as Guoqing Temple and Guangfang Temple. The construction of temples is no longer limited to mountainous sites but focuses more on harmonizing with the natural environment, creating a cultural landscape where architecture and natural scenery complement each other beautifully.

Resource utilization: Traditional beliefs and rituals play a crucial role in passing down environmental protection knowledge. In the infertile and drought-prone Tiantai Mountain area, water-fetching rituals, or "taking water," are conducted during dry periods. The "Tiantai Lu's Family Genealogy" documents clan leaders' regulations, such as building riverbanks to secure farmland, reflecting ancient environmental practices.. Feng Shui forests, preserving natural forest strips around water sources or villages, serve both as practical applications of Feng Shui and effective environmental protection measures. The philosophy of "unity between heaven and man" aims for harmony between people and the environment, significantly influencing the landscape of sacred mountains. The construction of Tiantai sect temples emphasizes Feng Shui—dragon veins, prohibiting stone quarrying and deforestation to prevent soil erosion and protect the ecological environment. Bruun regards Feng Shui as a living tradition that supports survival in any environment [51]. According to statistics, there are 1555 ancient trees around the temples in the Tiantai Mountain area, including over 600 ancient trees in the Feng Shui forests, featuring plum, camphor, and cypress trees. The monks of Gaoming Lecture Temple have cultivated the surrounding Feng Shui forest, forming an ancient tree group mainly consisting of Pinus massoniana, cypress, and Liquidambar formosana.

Diverse methods for the protection of ecocultural heritage

The current protection measures at Tiantai Mountain primarily follow traditional nature reserve management approaches, focusing on the integrity of ecosystems and biodiversity conservation. However, this does not adequately address the needs for cultural heritage protection, especially ecocultural heritage [52].

In contrast, the ecocultural heritage protection framework proposed in this study includes both biodiversity and cultural heritage conservation, learning from the method of national landscape conservation constructed by Zhao Y et al. in the Wenshui watershed of China [53]. The "Ecocultural Heritage Protection Framework" is defined as a network system within a specific area that carries cultural, historical, scientific, and aesthetic values through key nodal points and their environments and connection pathways, playing a crucial role in the protection and transmission of cultural landscapes. This protection framework considers the coordinated development of ecological safety and cultural heritage through a comprehensive protection method of points—lines—faces, not only protecting the natural environment but also emphasizing the protection and utilization of historical cultural resources.

Based on the construction pattern of ecocultural heritage conservation (Fig. 10), it can be roughly divided into heritage clusters such as Xikou, Guimen-Ganlin, Wozhou Lake, Chicheng Tongbai, Qiantong, and Pingqiao-Jietou. Observing the directions of cultural landscape corridors and the types of cultural landscape clusters covered, there exists a certain overlap with the cultural belt of the Tang Poetry Road in Eastern Zhejiang.

Fig. 10

Pattern of ecocultural heritage conservation

The concept of the Tang Poetry Road in Eastern Zhejiang was first proposed by Mr. Zhu Yuebing in 1991 [54]. The Tang Poetry Road in Eastern Zhejiang starts from Xiaoshan in Hangzhou, passes through Shaoxing, Xinchang and other places, and ends in Tiantai Mountain. It traverses many places where Tang Dynasty poets composed poetry, such as Xie Gong Island and Shanxi. According to records, 451 Tang Dynasty poets left their footprints and poems here. The heritage value of the Tang Poetry Road lies not only in its significance for literary research but also as an important carrier connecting the past and present, inheriting the excellent traditional Chinese culture. The protection and development of this route not only help enhance the region's cultural soft power but also promote the development of the tourism economy.

Therefore, this paper suggests that on the basis of the basic corridors, the cultural landscape belt of the Tang Poetry Road in Eastern Zhejiang should be taken as the core, connecting important ecocultural heritage clusters on the corridor. According to the distribution characteristics of the cultural landscape corridors and clusters in the Tiantai Mountain area, a "one belt, five axes, multiple cores" ecocultural heritage corridor conservation pattern is constructed from the overall spatial perspective of the region. "One belt" refers to the "Scenic Belt of the Tang Poetry Road in Eastern Zhejiang," implementing the basic task of "creating a golden tourism belt of the Tang Poetry Road in Eastern Zhejiang" proposed in the "Action Plan for Building a Large Garden in Zhejiang Province," aiming to achieve the competitiveness of cultural tourism in Eastern Zhejiang and the goal of a demonstration province for all-region tourism. Focusing on utilizing the resources of Tang poetry, agricultural culture, Buddhist and Taoist culture, and landscape tourism, a comprehensive cultural and tourism complex along the poetry road is developed. "Five axes" are ecological cultural corridor axes, with the main goal of cultural heritage resource protection and ecological restoration. To ensure the authenticity, integrity and originality of the corridor and its surroundings, construction and development activities that damage heritage buildings, natural environments and cultural historical landscapes are strictly prohibited, and the features of traditional cultural villages and historical cultural districts are maintained. "Multiple cores" refer to the six major heritage clusters. "Two wings" indicate the north and south wings, where the north wing focuses on protecting forest resources, biological resources, and river and lake resources, creating an ecologically clean and beautiful space; the south wing closely follows regional integration and cultural fusion trends, strengthening cultural space protection, protecting farmland resources, and actively exploring long-term development mechanisms for cultural and tourism development.

In the communities of famous mountains, local intangible cultural heritage should be valued and utilized to help community residents develop handicrafts and agricultural products with local characteristics, such as traditional Tiantai Buddhist crafts, local crops, and wild plant resources. Positioning these unique heritage resources as local specialties, these products not only reflect the cultural and ecological diversity of the Tiantai Mountain area but also possess high market and cultural value. Secondly, local governments and communities need to cooperate to ensure that residents can effectively utilize local resources. This includes providing necessary technical support and market information, helping residents improve product design and production processes, and finding sales channels. For example, special market areas can be established or cultural festivals organized to attract tourists and consumers, thereby increasing product recognition and sales. A related example is Peru's Andean Potato Park, which has promoted community development and environmental protection through the development and operation of ecocultural products.

Universal applicability of ecocultural heritage conservation

This article focuses on the regional applicability and theoretical-practical application of the methodology for ecocultural heritage, which holds reference value not only for the Tiantai Mountain area but also for the protection of cultural heritage in other large-scale mountainous regions.

In the implementation process, the first step is to establish a biocultural heritage indicator system. This involves quantitatively assessing the current state of biological and cultural resources to determine the priority and key areas for protection. The specific operational procedures should include the following steps:

• 1. Data collection and organization: use remote sensing technology, Geographic Information Systems, and field surveys to gather relevant data on biodiversity and cultural heritage.

• 2. Indicator system construction: based on regional characteristics and conservation goals, establish comprehensive evaluation indicators, including biodiversity index, cultural heritage richness, and coupling coordination degree.

• 3. Comprehensive evaluation and analysis: utilize statistical models and spatial analysis tools to process and analyze the data, identifying key areas and resources that need protection.

• 4. Formulating conservation strategies: based on the evaluation results, develop targeted conservation measures and management plans to ensure the continuous protection and rational use of biological and cultural resources.

The operational procedures should emphasize multi-stakeholder participation and coordinated management. The specific steps include:

• 1. Stakeholder involvement: invite government departments, community residents, research institutions, and non-governmental organizations to participate in conservation planning and decision-making, ensuring that the interests and opinions of all parties are fully considered.

• 2. Community education and training: enhance public awareness of the importance of biocultural heritage through outreach and educational activities, increasing community engagement and responsibility in conservation efforts.

• 3. Monitoring and evaluation: establish a long-term monitoring system to regularly assess the effectiveness and progress of conservation efforts, making timely adjustments and optimizations to strategies.

• 4. Funding and resource integration: seek funding support from multiple sources and integrate various resources to ensure the sustainability and effectiveness of conservation projects.

The method for ecocultural heritage protection is applicable to various regional types.

Local level: It is suitable for protecting historic cultural villages, traditional agricultural landscapes, and natural ecological reserves.

National level: It is applicable for formulating cultural and natural heritage protection policies and regulations, promoting regional coordinated development and ecological civilization construction.

International level: It is useful for participating in global biodiversity and cultural conservation actions, sharing experiences and achievements, and promoting transnational cooperation and joint development.

Conclusions

This article describes the spatial relationship between the ecological environment and cultural heritage by categorizing regions into ecocultural heritage restoration zones, controlled construction zones and Core Conservation zones through the ecocultural Heritage Index. This classification both enhances understanding of the ecocultural landscape but also guides strategic conservation efforts tailored to the specific regional needs. This conservation framework integrates ecological and cultural heritage conservation, challenges the conventional silos of conservation work and emphasizes the importance of treating landscapes as cohesive entities where biodiversity and cultural heritages coexist and interact.

Moreover, the conservation pattern outlined herein—a dynamic model comprising "one belt, five axes, multiple cores"—presents a strategic blueprint for safeguarding the ecocultural integrity of the Tiantai Mountain region. This pattern not only acknowledges the geographical and ecological uniqueness of each conservation area, but also emphasizes the cultural and historical significance embedded within these landscapes, contributing to a nuanced approach to conservation that balances ecological integrity with cultural continuity. The "one belt" strategy of the Tang Poetry Road cultural landscape belt in Eastern Zhejiang is an innovative example of integrating cultural heritage into ecological conservation efforts. This strategic belt serves as a cultural artery that connects diverse ecocultural heritage clusters, enriching the conservation landscape with historical depth and cultural vibrancy. The "five axes" and "multiple cores" further refine this approach by ensuring that both ecological and cultural conservation objectives are addressed in a coordinated and comprehensive manner.

Overall, applying the new perspective of ecocultural heritage through scientific operational methods, systematic procedures, and a wide range of applications can effectively enhance the comprehensiveness and sustainability of regional landscape protection. This approach addresses the shortcomings of traditional conservation methods, achieving joint protection and rational utilization of cultural and natural resources. It not only helps maintain the integrity and diversity of ecological environments and cultural heritage but also promotes the coordinated development of local economies and societies, enhancing residents' cultural pride and ecological responsibility.

Appendix A: Basic historical and cultural situation of Tiantai Mountain area

Historical period		Qin and Han Dynasty	Wei and Jin Dynasty	Sui and Tang Dynasty	Song Dynasty	Ming and Qing Dynasty
		221B.C.–220A.D	222A.D.–589A.D	581A.D.–907A.D	960A.D.–1279A.D	1368A.D.–1912A.D
Landscape ideas	Concept of nature	Nature was perceived as a mystical force, evoking reverence and awe among individuals towards mountains and rivers	Natural landscapes symbolized the manifestation of profound principles	The appreciation of mountains and rivers as objects of aesthetic enjoyment commenced, coinciding with an enhanced discernment of the natural beauty of landscapes among the intellectual elite		There was a growing emphasis on exploring the reasons behind the formation of landscapes and natural phenomena
	Scenic area development	A preliminary understanding of the beauty of natural ecology was gained	Literati developed a deep affection for mountains and rivers, embracing a preference for seclusion and residing in mountainous areas. Their aesthetic appreciation of landscapes gradually matured	The advancement of landscape literature, poetry, and painting contributed to the dissemination of renowned mountain culture, while the maturity of religious beliefs and aesthetic appreciation of landscapes played a guiding role in the development of scenic areas		The development of scenic areas gradually took shape, with the constant expansion of cultural landmarks. People were increasingly enthusiastic about engaging in activities such as sightseeing and pilgrimage
Religion	Taoism	The inclusion of Tiantai mountain area as a sacred mountain in the mythological system is established	The founder Ge Xuan practiced and preached on Tiantai mountain area, establishing Daoist temples and constructing a system of sacred sites and paradisiacal realms	The Southern School of Daoism was established. The ruling class favored Daoism and thus undertook the construction of grand palaces, temples, and scripture pavilions on Mount Tongbai, creating favorable conditions for the theoretical study of Daoism		The influence of religion gradually marginalized under the orthodox ideology and national system of the unified state
	Buddhism	The construction of Buddhist temples began to emerge	The indigenous Tiantai sect of Buddhism was established. Buddhism received support from the ruling class and popular devotion, leading to a significant increase in the construction of Buddhist temples	The Tiantai Buddhism gained widespread popularity among the general public, spreading not only within China but also to Japan and the Goryeo Kingdom
Clan	Education	\	Occasionally, scholars established lecture halls in the mountains for academic discussions and teachings	Regional rulers promoted Confucianism and facilitated the propagation of academic knowledge with family units as the fundamental entities		Within clans, private schools were established to provide basic cultural education
	Population Influx	Scholars and literati came to these mountains seeking enlightenment and spiritual cultivation	Some scholars, enchanted by the scenic beauty, decided to settle in these mountains	A large number of scholars and commoners from the northern regions migrated to this area along with the shifting political power		With the improvement of the environment, the clan system gradually became more refined and prosperous